An effective, ethical and science-based training approach relies on clear communication, precise timing and a solid understanding of reinforcement. In clicker training, food is typically used as the primary reinforcer. However, beyond this common form of reinforcement, there are other ways to strengthen behavior. One of them is a principle that plays a central role in modern behavior analysis, the Premack Principle. In horse training, this principle often goes unnoticed, even though it influences learning outcomes in subtle but significant ways. When it is not used consciously, it can lead to reinforcement patterns that are unintended and counterproductive.
The Premack PrincipleDas Premack-Prinzip besagt, dass ein häufig gezeigtes und bevorzugtes Verhalten als Verstärker für ein weniger wahrscheinliches Verhalten genutzt werden kann. Ein Tier oder Mensch ist eher bereit, eine weniger attraktive... » Weiterlesen is based on the idea that behavior can be reinforced by other behavior. More specifically, a behavior that is more likely to occur, typically one that is preferred, can reinforce a behavior with a lower probability of occurring, as long as it follows immediately.
It is important to understand that the Premack Principle is always at play, whether it is used consciously or not. In every training session, it affects which behaviors become more stable and which ones might be reinforced unintentionally. Being aware of this mechanism allows us to use reinforcement more deliberately and avoid leaving learning outcomes to chance.
Origin and scientific foundation
The Premack principle was first introduced in the 1950s by American psychologist David Premack. In his studies on rats, he observed that the animals were more willing to perform a less likely behavior, such as pressing a lever, when it allowed them to access a more preferred and frequently performed activity, like running in a wheel.
From this, Premack concluded that reinforcement does not depend solely on specific stimuliEin Reiz, häufig auch Stimulus genannt, ist eine äußere oder innere Einwirkung, die ein Lebewesen wahrnimmt und die eine Reaktion auslösen kann, aber nicht muss. Reize können aus der Umwelt... » Weiterlesen like food or water. Instead, it can emerge from the relationship between two behaviors. A behavior that occurs with high probability can reinforce one that occurs less frequently, as long as it follows immediately.
With this insight, Premack expanded on traditional learning theory, which up to that point had focused mainly on fixed stimuli as reinforcers. His work showed that behavior itself can function as a reinforcer if it is desirable for the individual in a given situation.
This concept was soon adopted in learning psychology, behavioral therapy and animal training. Today, it is a key foundation for the use of functional reinforcement, especially within the framework of positive reinforcement.
The Premack principle is always at play
The Premack principle is constantly present in horse training, whether it is applied intentionally or not. Whenever one behavior is followed by another that is more likely to occur, there is the potential for the first behavior to be reinforced. This often happens unintentionally in everyday routines, yet it can have a lasting impact on training.
Take the example of a horse that pushes forward at the gate. If it is immediately turned out to the pasture, the pushing behavior is likely to occur more often in the future. The act of being released becomes a reinforcer for the behavior shown just before. If, on the other hand, the horse is only released after standing quietly for a moment, then the calm behavior is what gets reinforced by the chance to move.
The same principle applies when mounting. If a horse starts to walk off as soon as the riders foot is placed in the stirrup and the rider simply continues with the session, the act of moving off gets reinforced. But if moving off only happens after a moment of stillness, it is the standing calmly that becomes more likely over time. This works even without external reinforcers like food, as long as moving forward is something the horse is motivated to do.
Movement, action, motivationMotivation ist der innere Antrieb, der ein Lebewesen dazu veranlasst, ein bestimmtes Verhalten zu zeigen. Sie entsteht durch die Erwartung, ein Bedürfnis zu befriedigen oder eine Konsequenz zu vermeiden. Motivation... » Weiterlesen – using naturally preferred behaviors as reinforcers
The Premack principle can be applied with great effect in horse training by using behaviors that the horse naturally enjoys as intentional reinforcers. These are typically actions from the horse’s innate behavioral repertoire that are inherently satisfying or motivating – such as moving off, increasing pace, stopping, or changing direction.
What makes these behaviors especially useful is that they are often easy to manage in training and can be used with relatively high frequency. For example, allowing the horse to move forward after standing quietly, offering a change of tempo after a smooth transition, or including a brief halt as a moment of orientation or emotional release. When linked deliberately and used in the right context, these kinds of actions can reinforce the behavior that immediately precedes them.
Examples of naturally motivated behaviors that can serve as reinforcers include:
- Walking off after standing still during mounting
- Free forward movement after a precise lateral step
- Transitioning from trot to walk after a well-balanced working phase
- A short halt after focused movement
- Being allowed to walk into the stall after a moment of waiting
These kinds of reinforcers are usually used alongside food rewards, rather than replacing them. They help ensure that horses with a strong need for movement are acknowledged and supported in the training process, without losing sight of the actual training objective. Likewise, they allow more energy-conserving horses to remain engaged through individually meaningful reinforcement. The key is that the preferred activity does not happen on its own, but is made available as a direct consequence of a specific behavior.
To identify which behaviors are suitable as reinforcers, careful observation is essential. Watch what your horse chooses to do during breaks, in liberty work or in neutral moments. Which actions appear spontaneous and joyful? Where does the horse seem confident, motivated and balanced? These are valuable indicators of which behaviors are naturally reinforcing and can be consciously integrated into training through the Premack principle.
When cues become reinforcers and why timingTiming bezeichnet im Clickertraining und in der positiven Verstärkung den genauen Moment, in dem ein Markersignal (z. B. ein Click) oder eine Belohnung gegeben wird. Präzises Timing ist entscheidend, da... » Weiterlesen is crucial
Behaviors that have been built through positive reinforcement can serve not only as training goals but also as reinforcers in their own right. This applies not just to natural behaviors but to anything the horse associates with positive experiences, including learned cues and the behaviors linked to them.
As soon as a behavior becomes predictable, pleasant and reliably available to the horse, it can be used to reinforce another behavior that occurs less frequently. In this context, both the behavior itself and the cue that precedes it gain reinforcing value. If a behavior has been established through consistent positive reinforcement, the cue alone can strengthen whatever the horse is doing at the moment it is given, because it predicts access to a preferred behavior and a positive outcome.
This is why cues should be given thoughtfully and with awareness. Whatever the horse is doing at the exact moment the cue is delivered may become associated with what follows. If a cue is given when the horse is standing with a crooked neck or looking at the treat pouch, these elements can unintentionally become part of the trained response, even if they were never intended.
These side effects often become established gradually. They do not reflect a lack of understanding but are usually the result of unclear timing, imprecise cue delivery or poorly defined markerEin Markersignal ist ein spezifisches Signal, das in der operanten Konditionierung verwendet wird, um dem Tier genau den Moment zu kennzeichnen, in dem es ein erwünschtes Verhalten zeigt. Es dient... » Weiterlesen criteriaEin Kriterium ist eine klare, einzelne Anforderung, die ein Tier in einem Training erfüllen muss, um eine Verstärkung zu erhalten. Es definiert eine präzise Eigenschaft des erwünschten Verhaltens, beispielsweise die... » Weiterlesen. To avoid this, cues should ideally be given in a neutral and balanced moment, for example when the horse is standing quietly, aligned straight and focused on the person. This supports both physical and emotional stability as a foundation for learning.
Understanding this connection allows the Premack principle to support not only individual behaviors but also the overall quality of the training process. Anything the horse associates with a positive experience, such as a familiar movement, a learned behavior or a well-established cue, can act as a reinforcer. That is why it is so important to pay attention to what happens just before, because both the behavior shown before a cue and the one shown before a reinforcing activity can be strengthened through what follows.
When the environment becomes the reinforcer: environmental reinforcement
In addition to consciously used natural or learned behaviors, there are reinforcers that arise from the environment itself. These so-called environmental reinforcers often work in subtle ways, but they can have a significant impact on learning.
A key difference between environmental reinforcers and functional reinforcers is that the former are often difficult or impossible to fully controlControl (Kontrolle) ist ein fundamentales Grundbedürfnis, da sie einem Individuum die Möglichkeit gibt, aktiv Einfluss auf seine Umwelt und sein eigenes Verhalten zu nehmen. Kontrolle bedeutet, dass Handlungen vorhersehbare und... » Weiterlesen. This becomes especially relevant in emotionally charged situations or when the horse is highly motivated. For example, if a horse is reluctant to leave the stable or tries to return to the herd, simply moving in the direction of the desired place can reinforce the behavior before the trainer has any chance to intervene. Sometimes even just a few steps, or a glance toward that location, can unintentionally strengthen the behavior.
Take the example of herdbound behavior. If a horse is anxious about leaving the yard, proximity to the stable can become so positively loaded that even the slightest retreat toward it becomes reinforcing. When arousal is high and the horse starts pulling or rushing, the behavior is often difficult to interrupt and is reinforced with every meter gained in the direction of safety. The more often this strategy „works,“ the more persistent it becomes.
In such cases, reinforcement does not come from a deliberate reward provided by the trainer but from what changes in the environment – something the horse finds subjectively rewarding or comforting. This could be reaching a preferred area, getting closer to other horses or simply moving toward a place that feels safe.
To avoid unintentionally strengthening problem behaviors through powerful environmental reinforcers, forward-thinking training structure is essential. Sessions should be broken down into small, manageable steps, with clear, controllable behavior, and within an arousal range in which the horse remains responsive and capable of learning. This helps prevent unwanted behavior from becoming reinforced before a counterconditioningGegenkonditionierung ist eine Methode zur Gewöhnung an Reize, bei der eine bereits vorhandene emotionale Reaktion auf einen Reiz durch eine neue, positivere Reaktion ersetzt wird. Das Tier lernt, dass ein... » Weiterlesen or redirection strategy can even begin.
Typical environmental factors that may act as unintentional or even useful reinforcers in training include:
- Visual contact with other horses
- Movement toward the stable or exit
- The opening of a gate
- Access to a shady or breezy spot on hot days
- Creating distance from people or equipment
- Ending an exercise in the direction of a preferred location
- Sniffing the ground during liberty work
These factors often occur alongside planned reinforcers but can also compete with them, especially when the training area or structure lacks clarity. For instance, if the horse regularly runs off during free work or becomes fixated on smells on the ground, it is very likely that the these and former behaviors are being reinforced by the surrounding environment – even if unintentionally.
This is why it is so important to be aware of their influence. While environmental reinforcers cannot always be eliminated, they can be accounted for when setting up the training context. In some cases, they can even be deliberately incorporated into the session. A horse might be allowed to walk toward the exit, a favorite spot in the arena, or a trusted person after completing an exercise. In other situations, it may be helpful to reduce or temporarily control access to such environmental stimuli in order to avoid unintended learning effects.
Environmental reinforcement reminds us that reinforcement is not only shaped by what the trainer does. It also comes from what changes around the horse during or after a behavior. Recognizing this helps expand our view of training and opens the door to working more consciously with the environment as a quiet but powerful co-trainer.
When behavior reinforces itself: self-reinforcement and perceived control in the context of the Premack principle
Some behaviors do not require an external reinforcer. They are intrinsically rewarding because they provide comfort, regulation or relief, and therefore tend to occur more frequently. This type of behavior, often referred to as self-reinforcing, is closely related to environmental and naturally motivated behaviors but differs in one important aspect. The reinforcement is part of the behavior itself. No external consequence or change in the environment is needed. The action alone creates a positive internal experience for the horse.
Typical examples include pawing while waiting, pushing toward the stable or herd, chewing on the lead rope or bucking during riding or liberty work. Even if these behaviors are not reinforced deliberately, they may reduce tension, relieve frustrationFrustration ist eine emotionale Reaktion, die auftritt, wenn ein Lebewesen daran gehindert wird, ein erwartetes Ziel zu erreichen oder eine gewohnte Belohnung zu erhalten. Sie entsteht besonders dann, wenn ein... » Weiterlesen or give the horse a sense of control. What makes this particularly relevant is that reinforcement does not only apply to the behavior itself but also to the behavior that immediately precedes it. This can lead to a strong and tightly linked chain of reinforcement that becomes established very quickly.
For example, if a horse regularly bucks when asked to canter and this helps it release tension or escape pressure, the bucking is reinforced. At the same time, the cue to canter can also become associated with it. Over time, the two behaviors may merge and be shown only as a pair. A similar process occurs when a horse consistently starts pawing whenever it is asked to stand still or is tied up, regardless of whether anything stressful happened beforehand. The behavior becomes part of the routine.
Self-reinforcing behaviors are also often linked to a sense of agency. The horse experiences that its own actions have a direct effect. It may feel safer, more confident or more in control of the situation. This feeling can cause the behavior to be used again in other contexts, especially if the horse has not yet learned more appropriate or functional alternatives.
In training, this means that such patterns can become deeply ingrained if they go unnoticed. Because they do not depend on external reinforcement, their development is often only recognized when the behavior is already well established. That is why early intervention is so important. A well thought-out training setup, low arousal levels and the development of alternative behaviors that are both rewarding and manageable are key to preventing unwanted patterns from taking hold.
In the context of the Premack principle, understanding self-reinforcing behavior expands the concept of reinforcement. It becomes clear that not only planned behavior sequences can have a reinforcing effect. Spontaneous or unwanted actions can also become part of the learning process and solidify behavior that was never intended to be repeated.
More than just food: combining reinforcers in a meaningful way
Understanding the different types of reinforcers allows us not only to use them intentionally, but also to combine them in ways that enhance their overall effect. When used together, they can produce a much more powerful reinforcement than food alone. This is especially valuable in clicker training, where precision, timing and a tailored approach are essential. By combining natural, learned and environmental reinforcers, we create a flexible and effective training strategy.
The goal is not to replace one reinforcer with another, but to build them up in a meaningful sequence. For example, standing quietly might first be reinforced with a food reward, followed by a cue to move forward. If that movement leads toward something the horse desires, like the pasture or the herd, the whole chain becomes reinforcing. Each element adds value to the one before, making the entire experience more rewarding from the horse’s perspective.
Learned behaviors can also serve as reinforcers. After a challenging task, allowing the horse to perform a well-established, low-effort behavior like touching a targetEin Target ist ein sichtbares Objekt oder eine Körperstelle, auf die das Tier gezielt reagieren soll, indem es sie berührt oder folgt. Es dient als Orientierungshilfe im Training und ermöglicht... » Weiterlesen or stepping backward can provide emotional clarity and restore a sense of balance. Especially when this is followed by a preferred environmental change, such as walking toward a companion or a familiar place, the reinforcing effect becomes even stronger.
It is not necessary for all reinforcers to occur at the same time. What matters is how well they are matched to the horse’s needs, the situation and the training goal. The more harmoniously they are coordinated, the more effective and sustainable the reinforcement becomes.
Food delivered by hand is not replaced but enriched when it is combined with other reinforcers. This gives it added meaning. The horse learns that its behavior leads to more than just a treat. It experiences a series of positive outcomes that reflect a deeper structure in the training process. This creates a stronger emotional connection and a more holistic sense of reward.
In addition to its effect on behavior, this layered approach also supports the horse’s emotional state. Predictable sequences and familiar behaviors provide orientation and safety. Building meaningful behavior chains helps increase motivation. When the horse experiences that its own actions have a direct effect, this reinforces its sense of control and confidence. These moments of self-efficacy strengthen not only the learning process but also the trust between horse and human. And when reinforcers are chosen to suit the horse’s emotional state, they can help reduce tension and create a more relaxed, cooperative atmosphere.
What develops is a reinforcement process that supports not only the behavior itself but also the emotional well-being of the horse. The Premack principle, in this context, becomes more than a strategy for reinforcing behavior with behavior. It offers a foundation for training that is responsive to the horse’s experience and creates motivation, structure and emotional balance far beyond what food alone can provide.
Reinforcement becomes powerful through context
The Premack principle reminds us that behavior never occurs in isolation. Every action is part of a larger sequence, shaped by what comes next, whether that is a cue, an experience, a change in the environment or another behavior. Reinforcement is rarely a single moment. It unfolds through the relationships between behaviors.
To apply reinforcement intentionally, it helps to understand the different types of reinforcers and how they interact. Each one contributes to learning and emotional balance. When used together, they create a reinforcement process that is more powerful and sustainable than relying on just one type.
Here is an overview of the most relevant reinforcement categories:
- Primary reinforcers
These are biologically significant rewards such as food. They are effective without prior learning and are especially useful for building new behaviors or for precise marking. - Naturally motivated behaviors
Actions like walking forward, stopping or changing direction that the horse finds rewarding in themselves. They are easy to integrate into training and help reinforce movement-based sequences. - Learned behaviors and cues
Positively trained behaviors such as touching a target. These provide structure and predictability and are helpful after difficult tasks or in moments of emotional tension. - Environmental reinforcers
Stimuli from the surroundings, such as approaching the herd or moving toward the pasture. These often work in the background and can unintentionally reinforce problem behavior. - Self-reinforcing behaviors
Behaviors that feel good to perform, such as pawing or bucking. They do not require an external reinforcer and often become linked with what the horse was doing just before.
Reinforcement is most effective when these elements are not used in isolation but thoughtfully coordinated. When different types of reinforcers are combined, they create a training structure that is not only effective but also emotionally supportive and adaptable to the individual horse. The horse does not just learn a specific response. It learns that its behavior has meaning, leads to positive outcomes and makes sense within the training flow.
Because behaviors influence each other, it is essential to look beyond isolated actions and instead focus on how one behavior affects the next. This is where the Premack principle becomes more than just a method for reinforcing behavior with behavior. It offers a framework for understanding how learning unfolds as a system of experiences, shaped by what the horse anticipates, what it receives and how it feels during and after each step.
What follows a behavior shapes its emotional tone, frequency and reliability. If a behavior is consistently followed by something the horse enjoys or finds meaningful, that behavior becomes stronger over time. If it is followed by something unpleasant, confusing or demotivating, the opposite effect can occur.
For example, if standing still is always followed by a stressful task or uncomfortable experience, the horse may begin to hesitate, resist or even avoid standing still altogether. In contrast, if that same behavior is followed by a trusted cue, a well-known task or a positive environmental change, it can become a reliable and emotionally positive part of the training.
That is why the context around reinforcement is so important. Cues should be delivered consciously, consequences selected with careDas Care-System ist eines der sieben primären emotionalen Systeme aus Jaak Panksepps Konzept der Affective Neuroscience. Es ist für Fürsorgeverhalten und soziale Bindungen verantwortlich. Es wird durch das Hormon Oxytocin... » Weiterlesen and even subtle behavior chains observed closely. Small patterns that often go unnoticed can become powerful reinforcers, either supporting or undermining the training goals.
By applying the Premack principle with this kind of awareness, training becomes more than a series of reinforced actions. It becomes a dynamic process that is responsive, consistent and emotionally balanced. Reinforcement, in this sense, is not a one-time event. It is a relationship between behaviors, shaped by intention and clarity. And it begins with paying attention to what truly matters to the horse.
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